The Piano

1Overview and classification

The piano occupies a special position among instruments because it combines several properties that are found separately elsewhere. It has a keyboard like other keyboard instruments, yet it produces its acoustic sound through vibrating strings. Those strings are not plucked but struck by small hammers. The movement begins at the finger, is transmitted through the key and the action, and ends in a brief, controlled contact between hammer felt and string. The result is an instrument that responds immediately to the player while being extraordinarily complex on the inside.

In its usual form an acoustic piano has 88 keys. The range runs from A0 to C8 and thus covers seven full octaves plus a minor third. The lowest note, A0, has a frequency of about 27.5 hertz, the highest note, C8, of about 4186 hertz. These figures refer to the international pitch standard in common use today and to scientific pitch notation. Older instruments may have a smaller range; historical fortepianos and early pianoforte instruments should therefore not be judged by modern 88-key models alone.

The English word “piano” is itself a shortening of “pianoforte”. In the broader organological sense it can be used as an umbrella term for the family of keyboard instruments with a piano action. In everyday speech “piano” usually means an upright instrument, while “grand piano” denotes the horizontal form of the same basic family. Both instruments have strings, a soundboard, bridges, dampers, hammers and a keyboard, but they differ in the arrangement and construction of many components.

Historically the piano stands between older keyboard instruments such as the harpsichord and the clavichord and the modern acoustic and electronic instruments. Its decisive innovation was that the force of the touch could influence both the volume and part of the tone colour. The historical name pianoforte, or fortepiano, points to exactly this possibility. Unlike the harpsichord, the instrument could in principle distinguish between quiet and loud playing. This dynamic range of expression changed not only playing technique but also the way music was composed.

The piano can present a single melody, carry several independent voices at once, sound chords, supply a bass line and take on very different rhythmic tasks. It is therefore both a solo and an accompanying instrument. In music education there is the added advantage that the keyboard makes pitch visible in space. Scales, intervals, chords and many harmonic relationships can be seen directly on the keys. That makes the instrument equally useful for beginners, advanced players, composers, arrangers and music theorists.

Versatility should not, however, be confused with simplicity. Even an apparently simple note requires the coordinated interplay of many parts. The key must travel a certain distance, the action must accelerate the hammer, the hammer must strike the string at the right point and then return quickly enough for the key to be played again. At the same time dampers, pedals and, where applicable, several strings of one note must work together. In fast passages this whole process repeats within a very short time.

Nor does the perceived sound of the piano depend on the string alone. The strings are coupled to the soundboard by the bridge. The soundboard sets a much larger volume of air in motion and thus contributes substantially to the audible loudness and tone colour. Added to this are the properties of hammer felt, strings, bridges, frame, case and the construction as a whole. Room acoustics, placement, temperature, humidity, state of maintenance and voicing all influence the result as well.

A piano is therefore not merely a piece of furniture with keys but a highly developed mechanical and acoustic system. Anyone wishing to understand it can distinguish several levels: the historical development, the outward form, the internal construction, the action, the acoustic production of sound, playing technique, musical applications and the care of the instrument. These perspectives complement one another and explain why the piano has retained its importance across the centuries.

2History

The history of the piano does not begin with a fully developed instrument but with a long line of keyboard instruments and actions. Even before the eighteenth century there were instruments in which a keyboard served to operate sound generators. The clavichord set strings sounding by means of tangents and allowed a degree of control over the note that was remarkable for its time. The harpsichord, by contrast, worked with a plucking action. Both instruments had characteristic musical possibilities, but neither could realise the dynamic range of the later piano in the same way.

The decisive figure in the emergence of the modern piano is generally held to be the Italian instrument maker Bartolomeo Cristofori. Around the turn of the eighteenth century he developed a keyboard instrument with a hammer action in which the hammer struck the string and then fell away from it again. The design made it possible to vary the force of the stroke. Cristofori's instruments are known today as early pianofortes. The path of development was not a single moment of invention but a process in which action, stringing, soundboard and case had to be matched to one another.

The new striking technique opened up possibilities for composers and players that were only available to a limited extent on a harpsichord. Depending on the speed of the key, a note could be excited with varying strength. Dynamics thus became an essential part of musical shaping. At the same time the hammer action placed high demands on precision. A hammer had to escape reliably, strike the string, fall back and be ready for the next stroke. The later history of the piano is therefore also a history of improvements to this action.

During the eighteenth century various forms of the fortepiano spread. Instrument makers in different regions developed their own construction principles. The Viennese, or German-speaking, tradition and the English method of piano building became particularly important. They differed in action, case construction, stringing and tonal character, among other things. The historical fortepiano was usually built more lightly than a modern concert grand and responded accordingly differently to the touch.

The music of the Classical period is closely bound up with this development. Composers such as Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven wrote for instruments whose sound and action changed over the course of their lifetimes. It is therefore not always historically sound to regard the modern grand as the direct tonal equivalent for their works. Today's concert piano has greater carrying power, an extended range and a different action. At the same time modern performance practice has learned to take historical instruments and their playing styles more fully into account.

In the nineteenth century technical development gathered considerable pace. The range was extended, the strings became heavier and longer, and constructions had to absorb the increasing string tension. One particularly important innovation was the massive metal frame, executed in modern pianos mostly as a cast-iron plate. It makes it possible to carry the high forces of the total string tension safely. As a result instruments could be built larger, more powerful and tonally more carrying.

The arrangement of the strings changed too. In the modern grand many bass strings are overstrung, that is, led diagonally across other string sections. This cross-stringing allows the soundboard to be used to better effect and supports a coherent sound. The exact design differs by maker and by instrument size. In the upright piano the vertical arrangement led to a compact form that was particularly suited to living rooms and to teaching.

The nineteenth century was also the period in which the piano became a central domestic instrument of the middle classes. A piano could serve as an instrument of musical education, as entertainment and as a symbol of cultural standing. In many households it became the focus of music making at home. Piano lessons developed into a fixed part of musical training, and for composers the instrument became an important medium for new musical forms.

Romanticism placed further compositional demands on the instrument. Composers such as Frédéric Chopin, Robert Schumann, Franz Liszt and Johannes Brahms made use of the growing range, the improved action and the dynamic possibilities. Virtuoso techniques called for rapid repetition of notes, wide leaps, differentiated chord colours and precise pedalling. The concert grand thus developed ever more into an instrument able to fill large halls with a carrying sound.

In parallel the modern upright piano took shape. The vertical construction required less room than a grand and could therefore be used in schools, flats and smaller music rooms. Different heights and case forms appeared. The quality of an upright does not depend simply on its outward size. What matters includes the design of the soundboard, the scaling, the action, the strings, the hammer heads and careful regulation.

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries brought further developments. Electric pianos, electronic keyboard instruments, digital pianos and computer-based systems widened the possibilities of playing. The acoustic piano nevertheless remained an instrument in its own right. Digital pianos can replace or complement an acoustic piano in certain applications, but they generate the sound electronically. They need no conventional tuning of strings and can often be played through headphones.

This history shows that the piano did not come about through a single invention. What proved decisive was the interplay of mechanics, acoustics, material development and musical demands. Every technical change opened up new possibilities while at the same time creating new structural problems. Today's piano is the result of this long interaction between instrument making and music history.

3Construction and action

From the outside a piano looks comparatively straightforward: keyboard, case, music desk and pedals are immediately visible. Inside, however, there is a large number of precisely matched components. The most important systems can be grouped into keyboard, key action, hammer mechanism, damping, stringing, bridges, soundboard and frame. To these are added the pedal mechanisms and numerous smaller parts that are decisive for regulation and reliability.

On a modern standard instrument the keyboard consists of 88 keys. The white keys and the raised black keys form a recurring pattern. This arrangement makes it easier to find one's way within the scale and makes many intervals visible. Beneath the visible key, however, there is not simply a switch but a mechanical lever. The key acts as part of a system of levers and, when pressed, sets further parts of the action in motion.

The actions of a grand and of an upright differ markedly. In a grand the hammer essentially moves upwards towards the strings. In an upright it moves largely horizontally towards the vertical stringing. These different directions of movement have consequences for the construction, the feel of the touch and the possibilities of the action. A grand action, for instance, can by its very design allow very fast repetition, whereas the upright requires other structural solutions.

An essential part of the hammer action is the hammer itself. Its head is covered with a special felt. On striking, the hammer does not rest permanently against the string but gives up its kinetic energy to it in a brief moment and then falls back, or is guided back, out of the region of the string. The hardness and shape of the hammer felt influence the tone colour. Through voicing, a piano technician can alter the surface and thereby the response and tonal character.

The action must also prevent the hammer from bouncing back uncontrolled against the string after the stroke. Various check and escapement mechanisms exist for this. In fast playing especially, the return of the hammer is decisive. The player must be able to strike a key again even though the key may not yet have returned fully to its rest position. Modern grand actions have an elaborate design for this which supports rapid repetition.

Another important mechanism is the damper. For most notes of an acoustic piano a damper rests against the string as long as the corresponding key is not being played. When the key is pressed the damper lifts and the string can vibrate. When the key is released the damper returns and largely stops the vibration. The speed and accuracy of this process are essential for clean playing.

Not every note of the piano has its own damper. In the upper treble the strings can be so short and their vibrations so brief that dampers are dispensed with. Damper shapes and arrangements also differ from instrument to instrument. This explains why the behaviour of the sustaining pedal can have a different effect in the topmost register than in the bass or in the middle range.

In modern acoustic pianos the strings are mostly made of steel wire. In the bass, wound strings are generally used for the lowest notes. A relatively thin steel wire is wrapped with a further wire, which makes it possible to achieve a greater vibrating mass within a limited string length. Without this technique the lowest strings would have to be considerably longer and thicker, which would make the instrument impractical.

Many piano notes are produced by more than one string. In the middle and upper range three strings are frequently assigned to one note, while in the bass one or two strings, or corresponding designs, are used depending on the pitch. The strings of a choir are excited together. Small differences in tension, material and vibration can contribute to the characteristic fullness of the sound. The exact number of strings varies with the size and design of the instrument.

The strings do not simply lie free inside the case. They are connected to the soundboard by bridges. The bridge transmits the vibrational energy of the strings to the soundboard. The soundboard is made of carefully selected wood and is built so that it responds to the vibrations transmitted to it. It is thus a central part of the acoustic amplification. Its task cannot be reduced to “making things loud”; its properties shape the distribution and colour of the sound.

Above the stringing of a grand is the large lid. Depending on the position of the lid, the way the instrument radiates into the room changes. The room itself is also part of what is perceived. A piano can sound quite different in a small, heavily damped room than in a large hall with a longer reverberation time. With professional instruments, therefore, not only the instrument but also its placement is taken into account.

The frame has a different job from the soundboard. The cast-iron frame absorbs a large part of the forces created by the tensioned strings. Modern piano strings are under high tension. These forces act through the anchoring points and the construction as a whole. The combination of frame, back posts, bridges and soundboard must therefore be mechanically stable and at the same time acoustically sound.

The case, too, is not merely a matter of outward design. It protects the internal components, carries various parts and influences the radiation of sound. Even so it is important to distinguish between structurally decisive parts and purely decorative surfaces. An elaborately veneered case does not automatically make an instrument tonally superior. What counts is the quality of the whole system.

The pedals form an additional level of control. The right pedal is normally the sustaining pedal. On modern acoustic pianos it lifts the dampers so that strings continue to sound even after individual keys are released. On a grand the left pedal shifts the position of the action, and with it the keyboard, so that the hammers strike the strings differently. On an upright the change of sound is often achieved by a mechanism that alters the travel or the striking effect of the hammers.

The middle pedal can have different functions depending on the instrument. On concert grands it is frequently a sostenuto pedal. It selectively holds open the dampers of those notes that are already being played when the pedal is depressed. Other notes continue to be damped normally. On uprights, by contrast, the middle pedal is often assigned a different role, for example a practice or moderator function. The function of a pedal should therefore not be inferred from the number of pedals alone.

The action of a piano needs regular regulation. Over time felts, leather, wood and other materials change through use and through climatic conditions. Keys can begin to feel uneven, escapement distances can shift and dampers can work irregularly. In a regulation the mechanical relationships are set precisely again. Tuning and, where necessary, voicing are added to this. These three areas are connected but not identical.

The construction also explains why a piano does not simply become louder without limit if the keys are pressed harder. What matters above all is the speed with which the hammer reaches the string. A controlled, faster stroke excites the string more strongly. The key serves as the means of transmission. For players this means that force and volume should not be equated. Good technique uses economy of movement and control rather than unnecessary muscular tension.

4Types: grand and upright

The two best-known acoustic types are the grand and the upright piano. Both rest on the same basic principle but differ markedly in their geometry. In the grand, strings and soundboard run horizontally. In the upright, the strings stand largely vertically. This decision affects not only the outward form but also the action, the space required and the tonal development of the instrument.

The grand has a horizontal body whose shape tapers from bass to treble. The strings differ in length according to their pitch. Low strings need a great deal of room because of their greater vibrating mass, while the high strings are shorter. The large soundboard lies beneath the stringing and can provide a wide area for radiating sound. With the lid open, the sound is directed purposefully into the room.

Grands are built in various sizes. Small baby grands take up less room and are often used for teaching, at home or in smaller halls. Larger concert grands have longer strings and a larger soundboard. The larger form does not automatically produce a “better” sound in every situation, but it creates different structural conditions. In the bass in particular, longer strings and a more generous scaling can play an important part.

The concert grand is designed for large spaces. It must not only be loud but also produce a coherent sound across the entire range. Carrying power, projection and the ability to differentiate are important qualities here. A good concert grand should be able to play very quietly and at the same time have large dynamic reserves. These demands place high requirements on action, hammer felt, strings, soundboard and regulation.

The upright piano, by contrast, uses a vertical construction. This makes it possible to accommodate an instrument with a considerable range on a relatively small footprint. The height of the instrument varies. Larger uprights can house longer strings and a bigger soundboard than very compact models. Size is therefore structurally relevant, but it too should not be taken as the sole measure of quality.

The upright action has to cope with the vertical arrangement. The return of the hammer is solved differently from the grand. Gravity acts on the parts of the action in a different way, which is why springs and other components can play a greater role. The touch of an upright can therefore differ from that of a grand. Good uprights can nevertheless allow very finely differentiated control of the touch.

For teaching the upright is particularly practical because it needs comparatively little space. Schools and music schools can accommodate several instruments in their teaching rooms without giving up the fundamental possibilities of an acoustic piano. At the same time a grand can make sense in a larger teaching or event room, because it has a different tonal presence in ensemble work and in recitals.

Several factors therefore play a part in the choice between grand and upright: the size of the room, volume, space required, budget, maintenance options, musical demands and personal preference in the feel of the touch. It would be too simple to call one type fundamentally superior. A high-quality upright can suit a living room better than a large grand, while a concert hall makes different demands.

A further type is the historical fortepiano. These do not form a single category but comprise instruments from various periods and regions. Early pianofortes were built more lightly, often had a smaller range and used different hammer and string designs. The music they were intended for therefore stands in a close relationship to their technical possibilities.

There are also special forms and historical hybrids. The square piano, for example, was widespread in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It has an elongated, table-like shape and differs markedly from modern uprights and grands. Such instruments matter today above all for historical performance practice and for collections, but they show vividly how varied the development of the piano was.

Digital pianos are to be distinguished from acoustic instruments. They have a keyboard whose shape and weighting are often modelled on acoustic pianos, but they generate the sound electronically. Depending on the model, samples, physical modelling or combinations of different methods are used. Loudspeakers or headphones take care of the sound output. The string, the hammer and the soundboard of an acoustic piano play no part in producing the sound.

Digital pianos have practical advantages. The volume can be regulated, headphone use is possible, and regular tuning of strings is unnecessary. In addition, extra functions such as a metronome, recording, transposition or different timbres may be built in. For certain teaching and living situations these features can be helpful. At the same time an electronic keyboard behaves differently from a fully mechanical and acoustic piano action.

So-called hybrid instruments combine elements of both worlds. Depending on the design, the keyboard may have a genuine mechanical piano action while the sound is generated electronically, or other combinations may be used. Such instruments show that the history of the piano did not end with the standard acoustic instrument. The basic idea of a weighted keyboard and finely differentiated control of the touch can be carried forward in a variety of technical systems.

5Sound, range and acoustics

The sound of the piano arises through a chain of events. A finger moves a key, the action accelerates the hammer, the hammer strikes the string, the string begins to vibrate, the bridge transmits part of this energy to the soundboard, and soundboard and strings set the air in motion. The audible result is therefore the product of a system and not of a single component.

A string does not vibrate in one single fundamental motion. Alongside the fundamental frequency there are partial vibrations that are perceived as overtones. The relationship between these frequency components influences the tone colour. In the piano there are also non-linear effects, the interaction between the several strings of one choir, resonances of the instrument and vibrations of the soundboard. This is what produces the complex sound we associate with an acoustic piano.

The range of modern standard pianos runs from A0 to C8. A0 has a frequency of about 27.5 hertz and C8 of about 4186 hertz, assuming the usual reference pitch of a′ = 440 hertz (A4 in scientific notation). These figures are the frequencies of the respective fundamentals; the sound actually heard also contains numerous overtones. The human ear therefore does not simply perceive a single frequency.

The lower notes are produced by longer, thicker or wound strings. With the same construction the lowest strings would be unwieldy if they were brought to the desired frequency by increasing their length alone. The winding increases the mass of the string. At the same time the strings must remain sufficiently stiff and able to bear the load. The scaling of an instrument describes, among other things, the arrangement and dimensioning of the strings across the whole range.

In the middle range several strings per note are usual. The energy is thus distributed over several vibrating strings. The strings are matched to one another so that together they form the note. Minute differences in vibrational behaviour can contribute to the fullness of the sound. If the strings of a choir are not tuned exactly alike, audible beats arise. Piano tuners therefore tune the strings of a choir as free of beats as possible; the finest residual deviations and the coupling of the strings through the bridge nevertheless shape the characteristic decay of the note.

Inharmonicity is an important peculiarity of the piano. Real strings are not ideally flexible. Their partials therefore lie slightly higher than would be expected of a perfectly ideal string. This deviation affects tuning across the entire range. For this reason pianos are not simply tuned to mathematically exact frequency ratios. Piano tuners take the acoustic properties of the particular instrument into account and settle on a suitable stretch for the octaves.

The widespread equal temperament arranges the twelve chromatic degrees so that every semitone has the same frequency ratio. In practice, though, the tuning of a piano is adjusted by its inharmonicity and by the chosen tuning curve. A real piano tuning therefore does not sound like an idealised mathematical scale. What matters most to players is that the intervals work together musically throughout the whole compass.

The loudness of a note also depends strongly on the touch. When a key moves faster, the hammer reaches the string at a higher speed. More energy is transmitted. At the same time the spectrum of the note changes. A powerful stroke therefore produces not simply “more” sound but can also have a different tonal character. Dynamics on the piano are thus a combination of volume, tone colour, articulation and timing.

The term pianissimo denotes very quiet playing, forte a powerful sound. Between these poles lies a wide range of intermediate levels. The exact dynamic is not determined by the strength of the arm alone. A controlled movement of finger, hand and forearm can produce different striking speeds. For musical playing, coordination is therefore more important than sheer physical strength.

The pedal changes the perception of the sound still further. When the right pedal is depressed the dampers lift and many strings can ring freely. A newly struck note can then excite other strings indirectly. This creates resonances that broaden the sound. At the same time harmonically unrelated notes can become blended. Pedalling is therefore not merely a matter of “lengthening” notes but an active means of shaping the sound.

The left pedal alters the way the sound is produced. On a grand the action is shifted so that the hammers strike the strings in a different position. With certain grand designs this changes the relationship between hammer felt and strings. The sound can thereby become quieter and different in colour. On an upright a different mechanical solution is used. The precise effect depends on the instrument.

The room influences the sound considerably. Hard walls, floors and ceilings reflect sound more strongly than soft, absorbent materials. A room with a long reverberation time can make a piano seem very carrying, whereas a heavily damped room makes individual notes sound drier and more immediate. For teaching a drier sound can even be helpful, because inaccuracies are more clearly audible. For concerts, on the other hand, a balanced projection is the aim.

Nor should the loudness of a piano be equated with its musical quality. An instrument can sound very powerful and still offer little differentiation. Conversely, an instrument with a lower maximum level can have a very wide palette of quiet and medium tone colours. For demanding playing, responsiveness, evenness and control are often more important than sheer volume.

The term resonance is often used in connection with pianos but can refer to several different processes. On the one hand the soundboard vibrates as part of the radiation of sound. On the other hand freely vibrating strings can be excited by other notes. Parts of the instrument can also respond to particular frequencies. A precise description should therefore make clear which kind of resonance is meant.

Acoustics explain why two outwardly similar pianos can sound different. Even instruments of the same model can differ markedly because of material, manufacture, age, regulation, tuning and voicing. With historical instruments the state of restoration and the original design principles are added to this. Sound is thus always the result of a particular instrument in a particular environment.

6Technique and musical shaping

Playing the piano begins with the connection between movement and an imagined sound. Pressing a key is mechanically simple, but musically it is only the first step. Even in a simple melody one has to decide how long the notes should be, how strongly they should sound, which notes belong together and how the phrase is to be shaped. Technique is therefore not an end in itself but creates the conditions for musical decisions.

A balanced seating position makes controlled movement easier. The height of the stool should be chosen so that the forearms are in a favourable position relative to the keyboard. The shoulders should not be raised unnecessarily, and the hands need enough freedom of movement. At the same time there is no single rigid posture that must be identical for everyone. Physique, instrument and musical task all affect the actual position.

The fingers do not work in isolation. In demanding playing, movements of the fingers, wrist, forearm and sometimes the whole arm are coordinated. With chords, octaves and large leaps in particular it would be inefficient to work from the fingers alone. Good technique distributes the work of movement across several parts of the body and tries to avoid unnecessary tension.

The kind of touch largely determines the articulation. Legato means that notes appear as connected as possible. Staccato denotes a distinctly shorter production of the note. Between them lie numerous possibilities, such as portato-like playing or different forms of accentuation. On the piano a legato cannot be produced by an actual overlap on the same string, as on a violin, but by precisely timed release and connection of the keys and by use of the pedal.

Changing fingers on a single key or within legato lines can help to create a melodic connection. In scales, finger combinations are used that allow the transition between the five fingers and the movements of the forearm. The familiar passing of the thumb under the hand is only one part of the technique. Modern piano teaching increasingly regards scales as coordinated patterns of movement rather than as isolated finger exercises.

Chord playing calls for a different kind of coordination. Several keys must be released as nearly simultaneously as possible without individual voices standing out unintentionally. Musically it may well be desirable for a melody note within a chord to sound stronger than the accompanying notes. The technical task is to produce different striking speeds within the same hand in a controlled way.

A central skill in piano playing is the independence of the voices. In a polyphonic texture the right and left hands can take on different musical tasks. But several voices can also occur within one hand. An upper voice may sing out, for example, while accompanying notes underneath remain quieter. This requires deliberate weighting and a precise idea of the sound intended.

The pedal complements this work. The right pedal in particular is frequently used too early or held too long. The aim is not to produce as much sound as possible but to support particular connections and resonances. Frequent changes of pedal may be necessary to render harmonic changes cleanly. Advanced technique also uses half or partial pedalling, though the actual execution depends on the instrument and its pedal mechanism.

Rhythmic accuracy is likewise an essential element. A metronome can help to check an even tempo. It does not, however, replace a musical feeling for pulse, phrasing and agogics. A mechanically identical repetition of every beat can be just as problematic musically as a completely uncontrolled tempo. The aim is a conscious connection between inner pulse and expressive shaping.

When learning difficult pieces, slow practice is particularly effective. A slow tempo makes it possible to observe movements, check fingerings and identify sources of error. What matters, though, is that slow does not automatically mean playing every note in isolation with maximum attention. Larger musical connections must remain recognisable in slow practice too.

Fingerings are tools. A sensible fingering should make patterns of movement easier, support musical lines and avoid unnecessary changes of position. Even so, the same fingering cannot be ideal for every hand and every interpretation. Hand size, tempo, articulation and musical structure should all be taken into account. In fast passages especially, a small difference in fingering can have a considerable effect on the economy of movement.

Playing from memory can widen musical freedom, but it is not a compulsory mark of quality. Some players benefit from having the score in front of them; others develop a stronger focus on sound and movement by memorising. Structural understanding, harmonic analysis, mental rehearsal and the linking of ear, movement and notation all help towards secure memorisation.

Sight-reading is a different skill. Here an unfamiliar score is turned directly into sound. Perfect playing is not the primary aim; orientation, rhythm, harmonic connections and keeping going are more important. Regular sight-reading can considerably improve one's understanding of notation and of musical forms.

Improvisation offers a further perspective. Anyone improvising does not have to write down every note in advance. Simple forms can begin with scales, chords and rhythmic patterns. An accompaniment can grow out of a chord progression, and a melody above it. With increasing experience, stylistic features, modulations, countermelodies and more complex forms can be added. Improvisation thus strengthens the direct connection between musical imagination and keyboard.

The piano is also well suited to ensemble work. A pianist can accompany other instruments, work with singers or play in chamber music groups. Accompaniment calls for particular skills: one has to listen to others, respond flexibly in tempo, leave dynamic space and allow for musical breathing points. A technically perfect accompaniment can still be out of place if it covers the partner's melody.

Technique develops over the long term. At the beginning come orientation and basic coordination. Later, scales, chords, pedalling, polyphonic playing, larger leaps and differentiated tone shaping are added. Advanced players work increasingly on interpretation, stylistic awareness and personal expression. Development does not proceed at the same pace for everyone. Regular, concentrated practice matters more than individual practice sessions that are as long as possible.

Health and economy of movement also deserve attention. Pain is not a normal goal of piano practice. Repetitive strain should be avoided through breaks, sensible practice units and a balanced technique. If discomfort persists, expert medical or physiotherapeutic advice should be sought. Pedagogically it makes sense to distinguish between an unfamiliar movement and a genuine signal of pain.

7Repertoire and music history

The piano repertoire is among the largest of any single instrument. It ranges from short teaching pieces to large-scale concertos, from historical keyboard music to jazz, pop, film music and contemporary composition. This variety is bound up with the particular function of the instrument: it can present several voices at once and is suited both to precise composition and to spontaneous accompaniment.

For the Baroque period the harpsichord is certainly a particularly important keyboard instrument, but the piano and related fortepianos were developing too. In the case of Johann Sebastian Bach a large part of the central keyboard repertoire was not originally written specifically for the modern piano. Works such as The Well-Tempered Clavier were conceived for keyboard instruments in general and are played today on a variety of them. A modern piano performance is therefore always also a question of historical interpretation.

With the rise of the fortepiano, music changed in the late eighteenth century. The possibility of dynamic gradation and the further development of the action influenced phrasing, accompaniment and formal design. In Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven the relationship between instrument and composition is particularly clear. Repetitions, contrasts and dynamic surprises could be shaped differently on the new instrument than on the harpsichord.

The piano sonata became a significant genre. A sonata could comprise several movements and combine different musical characters. Beethoven greatly extended the expressive possibilities of the genre. His later works place high demands on interpretation and technique and at the same time show how far the possibilities of the instrument had changed.

Romanticism used the piano as an instrument of personal expression. Character pieces, songs without words, impromptus, nocturnes, études, ballades and other forms appeared. Chopin wrote a large part of his output for the piano and developed a finely differentiated language of melody, harmony, ornamentation and rhythmic flexibility. His works are closely bound up with the possibilities of the instrument.

Franz Liszt took piano virtuosity to a new level. Large leaps, octaves, chordal passages, rapid runs and orchestral sound effects became part of a new concert culture. The grand piano increasingly became the instrument of the virtuoso solo recital. At the same time it became clear that technical virtuosity and musical shaping cannot be separated from one another.

Robert Schumann used the piano for a different kind of expression. Many of his works link short musical ideas to literary images or characters. Johannes Brahms developed a dense pianistic language in which rhythmic displacement, complex part-writing and a strong harmonic structure play an important role. Here too the piano shows its ability to present several musical levels at once.

In the French repertoire, tone colour and the effect of the pedal were treated with particular subtlety. Composers such as Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel widened the idea of how a piano can sound. Chords were used not only as harmonic functions but also as fields of sound. Register, pedal and touch took on special importance.

The twentieth century brought enormous stylistic variety. Béla Bartók integrated rhythmic and sonic ideas connected among other things with folk music and modern harmony. Sergei Prokofiev wrote works with sharp rhythms, motoric movement and unusual sound effects. At the same time entirely different piano styles were emerging in jazz, light music and later in pop.

Jazz placed the piano in new musical contexts. Ragtime, stride, swing, bebop, cool jazz, modal jazz and other styles each developed their own demands. Pianists frequently had to organise accompaniment and solo line at the same time, know chord progressions, respond with rhythmic precision and improvise. The left hand can take over bass and chord functions, for example, while the right hand shapes melodic and improvisatory material.

In pop and rock music the piano is equally versatile. It can supply harmonic textures, rhythmic patterns, bass lines or striking melodies. Electric pianos and synthesizers extend the tonal possibilities. The acoustic piano nevertheless remains popular, especially in ballads, song accompaniment, songwriting and many studio recordings.

Film music uses the piano both as a solo instrument and as part of larger ensembles. Single piano notes can create an intimate atmosphere, while repetitive figures support rhythmic or emotional structures. Thanks to its wide range the instrument can present bass and middle voices as well as high lines at the same time.

One important area is piano duet playing. Two people play at one keyboard and divide the instrument into spatially defined areas. This combination was particularly popular in the nineteenth century and played a part in spreading orchestral works in arrangements. Playing together demands a high level of coordinated attention, because both players use the same body of sound and the same keyboard.

The forces are larger still when playing on two pianos. Here two complete keyboards and two instruments can be used. The repertoire ranges from original works to arrangements. The players must be matched to one another not only musically but also tonally.

The piano is also an important compositional tool. Composers can try out harmonic progressions, check polyphonic textures and hear musical ideas directly. Orchestral scores, too, are traditionally often reduced or checked at the piano. The piano of course does not replace knowledge of instrumental colours, but it can be a central practical aid in developing musical structures.

There is a large teaching repertoire for beginners. Good study pieces introduce new problems of movement and notation step by step. A balance between technical exercises and musically satisfying pieces is important. Children often benefit from short, clearly structured tasks, while adults can bring in musical interests of their own.

The choice of repertoire should therefore not be based on difficulty alone. A piece can be technically easy but musically hard to grasp. Conversely, a more demanding piece can be motivating if its musical idea matters particularly to the learner. Lessons can therefore combine different styles and take account of both classical literature and modern music.

8Learning the piano

Learning the piano means building up several skills at once. These include orientation on the keyboard, reading music, rhythm, aural training, coordination of movement, musical memory and expression. None of these skills has to be fully developed from the start. They grow in parallel and influence one another.

At the beginning there is usually orientation on the keyboard. The recurring arrangement of the black keys offers visual points of reference. From these the names of the white keys can be derived. Even simple exercises can serve to make intervals and directions of movement clear. The keyboard is thus not merely a control panel but a spatial model of the ordering of pitch.

Reading music develops best alongside playing. For the piano two staves are generally used, most often notated in the treble and bass clefs. Advanced literature may use additional notations or octave signs. The aim is not to decipher every single note in isolation but to recognise patterns: scales, chords, intervals, rhythmic groups and recurring figures.

Rhythm should also be taught early. Whole, half and quarter notes are only the beginning. Rests, dotted values, ties, syncopations and different time signatures follow later. Piano lessons can include rhythmic exercises away from the instrument, such as clapping, speaking or moving. This prevents rhythm from being understood solely as a finger movement.

Good teaching combines technical exercises with music. Scales and finger exercises can be useful but should have a recognisable purpose. If an exercise prepares for a passage in the repertoire, for example, its value is immediately clear. At the same time short technical exercises can train coordination without being tied to a particular piece.

For children, motivation plays an important part. A piece should contain challenges that are attainable but not entirely undemanding. Small successes encourage a willingness to practise. Teachers can take up musical interests without giving up the systematic development of basic skills. A modern song, for example, can be combined with a classical scale exercise.

Adults, too, can begin learning the piano at any age. They often bring different conditions for learning than children do. They can grasp connections theoretically more quickly but may have less free time for practice. A teaching plan should therefore be realistic. Regular short practice sessions can be more effective than rare, very long ones.

Practising does not mean playing a piece over and over from beginning to end. Working on small sections is often more effective. Difficult places can be practised in isolation, slowly and with different rhythmic variants. Afterwards they are built back into the musical context. The important thing is not to repeat the same mistakes again and again at a fast tempo.

A practice plan can combine different areas. A session might begin with technique, followed by a short piece of sight-reading, work on repertoire and free playing at the end. The exact length depends on age, aim and available time. Breaks are part of sensible practice too. Concentration flags if a task is repeated for too long without variation.

The ear should be actively involved. Before playing, one can imagine a melody or identify the harmonic direction of a section. While playing, attention should be paid to balance of sound, rhythm and articulation. Afterwards one can check whether the result matches the sound one had in mind. This feedback is an important part of musical development.

Mistakes are unavoidable in learning and can be used diagnostically. A wrong note may point to a problem in reading, an unsuitable fingering or unclear orientation. A rhythmic error may arise from a missing inner pulse or from difficult coordination. Anyone who sees mistakes only as something negative misses the chance to work on their cause.

Learning from notation and learning by ear complement each other. Playing by ear strengthens musical perception and memory. Reading music opens up access to a large repertoire and supports the independent study of new works. Balanced teaching can use both paths.

Improvisation can take place from the very beginning as well. Question-and-answer patterns can be formed with only a few notes. Accompaniments can be created with simple chords. Keys, rhythmic models and forms are added later. Improvisation can thus help to experience the keyboard as a musical space and not only as a place of prescribed notes.

Technical development should always remain linked to ease of movement. Hands and arms need enough freedom. A certain amount of effort is unavoidable, but permanent tension is not the goal. In fast passages especially, an efficient movement is often better than a forceful one. Teachers can help to spot unnecessary patterns of movement early.

The choice of instrument influences learning. An acoustic piano conveys the direct relationship between touch and sound and gives mechanical feedback. A digital piano can offer practical advantages through volume control and headphone use. For beginners it matters above all that the keyboard works reliably and that a suitable instrument is available at all. With weighted digital pianos, care should be taken that the keyboard suits the intended goal.

Lessons at a music school offer the additional advantage of regular feedback. A teacher can observe posture, fingering, rhythm and musical shaping. They can adapt exercises and spot difficulties early. At the same time lessons should not replace independence. The aim is for learners to become increasingly able to judge for themselves what works in their playing and what they want to work on next.

Progress cannot be measured by the difficulty of the pieces alone. Improvements in rhythm, sound, sight-reading, memorising, improvising or musical understanding are progress too. A simple piece can be shaped with great subtlety at a high level. Musical maturity is therefore not the same as playing the most difficult literature possible.

9Tuning, care and maintenance

An acoustic piano is a precision instrument that responds to changes in its surroundings. Strings are under high tension, wood takes up moisture and gives it off again, felts change through use, and mechanical contact points wear. Maintenance is therefore part of the normal operation of a piano and is not something that becomes necessary only once an instrument is obviously damaged.

Tuning ensures that the pitches stand in a musically usable relationship to one another. A piano can go out of tune through fluctuations in temperature and humidity. Normal use also affects the tension of the strings. How often an instrument should be tuned depends on use, climate, the condition of the instrument and the demands placed on it. Instruments played frequently or used for concerts generally need more attention than those rarely played.

Tuning does not proceed by setting each key in isolation to a frequency. First a reference region is established, then the intervals and the remaining registers are distributed accordingly. The inharmonicity of the strings must be taken into account in the process. The result is a tuning curve that works across the entire range.

Alongside tuning there is regulation. This concerns the mechanical adjustment. Key travel, escapement, check mechanisms, hammer movement, dampers and other components must be set so that the instrument responds evenly. A piano can be correctly tuned and still play unevenly if the action is poorly regulated.

Voicing concerns above all the tonal treatment of the hammer heads. Over time felt can become harder or compacted. This changes the sound. A piano technician can work on the hammer heads to influence the response and the distribution of tone. The aim is normally not the loudest possible sound but a controlled tonal picture that is balanced across the registers.

Room climate matters for acoustic instruments. Wood and other materials react to relative humidity. Large and rapid fluctuations can be problematic in the long run. A piano should therefore not be placed directly next to a strong source of heat. Direct sunlight can also create unfavourable conditions. As stable a room environment as possible is generally sensible.

In cleaning, a distinction should be made between the case and the internal parts. External surfaces can be cleaned carefully according to their finish. Keys should not be treated with aggressive cleaning agents. The inside of a piano should not be worked on independently with vacuum cleaners, liquids or sharp tools. Felts, strings and action parts are delicate.

The pedals and their mechanism should also stay clean and in working order. A pedal that makes unusual noises or does not return fully should be checked. The same applies to keys that stick, rattle or return noticeably more slowly. Such symptoms can have harmless causes but may also point to mechanical problems.

Particular care is needed when moving a piano. It is heavy and contains delicate mechanisms. With a grand there are additional demands because of the large case and the moving parts. Transport should therefore be carried out by people familiar with the instrument. After a move a fresh tuning may be necessary, because string tension and climatic conditions can change.

Old instruments are not automatically poor. A well-preserved or expertly restored historical piano can be musically very interesting. Conversely, an instrument that looks well cared for on the outside may have considerable problems inside. With second-hand pianos, therefore, the action, soundboard, bridges, frame, strings, tuning and general state of maintenance matter more than outward appearance alone.

In judging a second-hand instrument the intended use should be considered too. Beginners' lessons make different demands from a professional concert instrument. A used upright can be a sensible solution for a household if action and tuning are in good condition. The cost of any necessary overhaul should, however, be taken into account before a decision is made.

Maintenance is also a question of safety. A piano contains components under considerable tension. Work on strings, tuning pins and the frame should be left to specialists. Loosening or working on heavily tensioned strings oneself in particular is not comparable to an ordinary household repair.

10Piano making around the world

In the nineteenth century piano making developed into an industry with a few centres whose names still stand today for particular tonal ideals.

Maker	Founded	Significance
Bösendorfer (Vienna)	1828	Viennese tonal tradition; the “Imperial” model with 97 keys (down to C0)
Bechstein (Berlin)	1853	The concert grand of the nineteenth century (Liszt, Bülow)
Blüthner (Leipzig)	1853	Aliquot stringing (an additional sympathetic string in the treble)
Steinway & Sons (New York, from 1880 also Hamburg)	1853	Breakthrough with the cast-iron frame and cross-stringing; today most concert grands worldwide
Grotrian-Steinweg, Schimmel, Seiler, Sauter	19th c.	traditional German makers
Pleyel, Érard (Paris)	1807 / c. 1780	the instruments of Chopin and Liszt; Érard invented the repetition action (1821)
Yamaha (Japan)	first pianos 1900	today one of the largest makers; CFX concert grand
Kawai (Japan)	1927	grands and digital pianos
Fazioli (Italy)	1981	top-class grands in small series
Pearl River (China)	1956	the world's largest piano maker by units produced

11The piano in jazz, blues, Latin and pop

Outside art music the piano shaped almost every popular style of the twentieth century.

Style	Features	Pianists
Ragtime (c. 1895–1920)	march-like left hand, syncopated melody	Scott Joplin (“Maple Leaf Rag”, 1899), James Scott
Stride	left hand leaps between bass note and chord	James P. Johnson, Fats Waller, Willie “The Lion” Smith, Art Tatum
Boogie-woogie, blues	ostinato bass lines in quavers, blue notes	Meade Lux Lewis, Albert Ammons, Pete Johnson; Otis Spann
Swing and bebop	comping, right hand like a horn player	Earl Hines, Teddy Wilson, Count Basie, Bud Powell, Thelonious Monk
Modern jazz	rootless voicings, modal harmony, trio interplay	Bill Evans, Oscar Peterson, McCoy Tyner, Herbie Hancock, Chick Corea, Keith Jarrett (The Köln Concert, 1975), Brad Mehldau, Hiromi
Cuba, Latin jazz	montuno figures (syncopated broken chords) over the clave rhythm	Ernesto Lecuona, Rubén González, Bebo and Chucho Valdés, Eddie Palmieri, Gonzalo Rubalcaba
Brazil	bossa nova harmony, choro	Antônio Carlos Jobim, Ernesto Nazareth, Egberto Gismonti
Gospel, soul	church harmony, passing chords, call and response	Ray Charles, Aretha Franklin, Billy Preston
Rock 'n' roll, pop, singer-songwriter	hammering quavers, ballads	Little Richard, Jerry Lee Lewis, Fats Domino, Elton John, Billy Joel, Carole King, Tori Amos, Alicia Keys
Chanson, film music, neoclassical	lyrical, minimalist piano pieces	Ludovico Einaudi, Yann Tiersen, Nils Frahm, Ryuichi Sakamoto

12The piano worldwide

In the nineteenth century the piano spread to every continent with the European middle classes and with colonial trade. In Latin America distinctive salon and dance forms grew up (the Argentine tango for piano, the Cuban danzón, the Brazilian choro); in Russia a school of pianism of its own (Anton Rubinstein, later Heinrich Neuhaus, Sviatoslav Richter, Emil Gilels).

In the twentieth and twenty-first centuries a large part of piano teaching worldwide shifted to East Asia. From the Meiji era (from 1868) Japan built up a Western-oriented musical education; Yamaha and Kawai grew into global brands, and the Yamaha music schools spread group teaching internationally. In South Korea and especially in China many millions of children learn the piano today; China has become the world's largest piano market and producer. Pianists such as Mitsuko Uchida, Lang Lang, Yuja Wang, Seong-Jin Cho and Yunchan Lim are among the world's finest. Chinese composers combined Western pianism with their own tradition, for instance in the Yellow River Piano Concerto (1969).

Important international competitions include the International Chopin Competition (Warsaw, since 1927), the Queen Elisabeth Competition (Brussels), the Tchaikovsky Competition (Moscow), the Van Cliburn Competition (Fort Worth, since 1962), the Busoni Competition (Bolzano, since 1949), the Leeds Competition and the Clara Haskil Competition (Vevey); in Germany there are also the ARD International Music Competition and “Jugend musiziert”.

13The piano in lessons and at the music school

The piano is particularly well suited as a teaching instrument because musical relationships become immediately visible and audible. A teacher can, for example, explain a scale and at the same time show on the keyboard how whole tones and semitones are arranged. Chords can be seen as notes pressed simultaneously, and intervals can be followed in space.

For beginners' lessons the keyboard is at first a manageable system. The recurring pattern of the black keys helps with orientation. From there, scales, keys and chords can be opened up step by step. At the same time musical listening is involved from the outset. A note is not just a name on paper but a concrete acoustic event.

Good teaching links reading, listening and movement. Learners see the note, find the corresponding key, hear the sound and develop a suitable movement. With growing experience these steps become more automatic. Advanced players increasingly read in larger units and recognise musical patterns rather than individual signs.

The piano is also an excellent instrument for harmony. Triads and seventh chords can be played directly. Inversions can be demonstrated by moving individual notes. Cadences become audible, and theoretical terms such as tonic, subdominant and dominant take on a concrete musical meaning. Modulations, too, can be followed in practice.

In aural training the piano can serve as a reference instrument. Intervals are played and then identified or sung back. Chord qualities can be compared. Melodies can be played and echoed. Here the instrument is a tool, not the actual goal of learning: what matters is the development of one's own inner hearing.

The piano is helpful in ensemble teaching as well. It can double melodies, supply chords, support rhythmic structures or accompany other instruments. Pupils learn in the process to listen to one another. In accompanying especially it becomes clear that musical quality does not consist of one's own part alone.

Music schools often use pianos in a variety of teaching situations. Individual lessons make focused technical work possible. Group lessons can be supplemented by shared exercises. Recitals give learners the chance to present a prepared piece to an audience. This is not only about achievement but also about stage experience and the ability to carry on musically after a mistake.

The piano can also serve as a starting point for other instruments. Knowledge of notation, rhythm, chords and musical forms transfers to many instruments. Anyone who later takes up the guitar, singing or a wind instrument, for example, can benefit from a harmonic and rhythmic understanding already in place.

At a music school the choice of instrument should nevertheless be an individual one. Not everyone wants to play classical literature exclusively. Pop, jazz, film music, song accompaniment and improvisation can be equally valid parts of the lessons. A broad repertoire makes it possible to take up musical interests and develop technical foundations at the same time.

14Culture, society and technical development

The piano was not only a musical instrument but also a cultural object. In the nineteenth century in particular it became part of domestic life in many middle-class households. Families made music together, children took lessons, and sheet music became an important part of home culture. The instrument thus stood at the intersection of education, leisure and public concert life.

The spread of the piano also affected the availability of music. Arrangements for piano, or for piano duet, made it possible to get to know orchestral and operatic music on a smaller scale. The piano thereby became a medium for disseminating music. At the same time an extensive industry grew up around instruments, sheet music and teaching.

With the arrival of sound recording the role of the piano changed again. Pianists could now be heard other than live. Recordings made it possible to compare different interpretations and helped to spread particular traditions of playing. Radio, the gramophone record, the cassette, the CD and digital media followed later.

The twentieth century also brought a strong connection between the piano and electrical technology. Electric pianos used pickups and amplification to relay the sound of a mechanical instrument electronically or to alter it deliberately. Electric pianos became sound sources in their own right in jazz, pop, soul and other styles.

Electronic keyboard instruments went further still. Synthesizers could produce sounds that were not limited to imitating an acoustic piano. Even so, the piano-like keyboard remained an important control surface. The spatial arrangement of keys proved practical for melodic and harmonic playing.

Digital pianos use modern electronics to reproduce or tonally reinterpret the behaviour of an acoustic piano. High-quality systems take account of striking speed, pedal position and other parameters. Some instruments also simulate resonances and mechanical incidental noises. The technical basis nevertheless remains different from that of the acoustic piano.

For musicians, digital instruments offer advantages in volume and portability. Headphones make it possible to practise at times when an acoustic instrument would disturb others. MIDI and USB interfaces can provide a connection to computers. The piano thus becomes a tool for music production as well.

Acoustic and digital instruments should therefore not be regarded purely as competitors. To some extent they serve different purposes. The acoustic piano offers direct mechanical and acoustic interaction. The digital piano offers flexibility, control of volume and additional functions. The right choice depends on the musical aim and on the particular setting.

15Terms and common misconceptions

A number of terms connected with the piano are used imprecisely in everyday speech. One frequent example is the equating of “piano” with the upright instrument alone. In general usage that is understandable, but in organological terms a distinction should be made between the upright form and the grand. Both belong to the piano family but are differently constructed.

The term “pianoforte” is also to be understood historically. It means something like “soft-loud” and points to the dynamic control of the touch. The historical name arose at a time when the new hammer action was to be emphasised in contrast to older keyboard instruments.

Another misconception concerns the range. A modern standard piano typically has 88 keys and reaches from A0 to C8. The frequency of about 27.5 hertz belongs to the note A0. Such figures must therefore always be given together with an unambiguous octave designation.

The claim that a piano has “the widest range of any instrument” is also too sweeping. Among common classical instruments its compass is exceptionally large, but instrument families and specialist instruments can cover other ranges. It is more accurate to say that the modern piano has a very wide range and is among the instruments with the widest continuous compass.

Not every piano note is produced by a single string. In the middle and upper range several strings per note are usual. Other arrangements apply in the bass. Anyone speaking of “the string” is therefore often using shorthand for the choir of strings belonging to a note. For an introduction this simplification is acceptable, but a technical description should take the different stringing into account.

Nor does the sustaining pedal simply lift “all the dampers for good”. It lifts the dampers for as long as the pedal is held. With certain instruments and in the upper register there are structural peculiarities. When the pedal is changed, the dampers drop briefly and stop the notes that were sounding before the newly depressed pedal releases the following ones. It is precisely this interplay of holding and damping that makes pedalling musically demanding.

The left pedal, too, is not mechanically identical on all pianos. On a grand the una corda function shifts the action sideways so that the hammers strike the strings in a different position. On an upright a different construction is frequently used. A general description should therefore state the type of instrument explicitly.

Digital pianos are not simply “inferior pianos”. They produce sound electronically and pursue different design goals. A good digital piano can be very well suited to a particular purpose. Conversely, an acoustic instrument can meet requirements that a digital piano cannot meet in the same way. The question is therefore less one of ranking than one of function.

The idea that a heavy touch automatically sounds better or louder is likewise mistaken. What counts is the controlled speed of the hammer. Unnecessary force can even restrict freedom of movement. In longer practice sessions especially, an efficient technique makes more sense than sustained physical effort.

Finally, the notion that learning the piano consists mainly of memorising notes is problematic. Reading, listening, movement, rhythm, harmony, interpretation and musical imagination all interlock. Good teaching develops these areas together. The aim is not merely to press as many keys correctly as possible but to express musical ideas intelligibly on the instrument.

16Frequently asked questions

Acoustic piano or digital piano for a beginner?

A good digital piano with a weighted hammer action, 88 keys and three pedals is perfectly adequate for beginners, and it is compact, quiet and never needs tuning. An acoustic piano offers more tonal nuance and a better sense of touch; from intermediate level onwards it is clearly preferable.

At what age can you start learning the piano?

From about five or six years of age, and earlier still with playful approaches. Adults can begin at any age.

How often does a piano need tuning?

As a rule once or twice a year, and more often with new instruments; swings in humidity put a piano out of tune particularly badly.

What is the difference between a grand and an upright piano?

In a grand the strings lie horizontally, in an upright piano they run vertically. The grand usually has a faster repetition and more tonal volume, while the upright needs less space.

How much does a good piano cost?

New uprights from reputable makers start at around €5,000–8,000 and grands at around €15,000; second-hand instruments should always be examined by a piano technician.

Do I have to be able to read music?

For classical repertoire, yes; for pop, accompaniment and jazz, chord symbols and a good ear are enough to begin with. The combination of both is the most versatile.

17Key technical terms of the piano

Anyone who studies the piano more closely meets a wealth of technical terms from organology, acoustics, playing technique and piano making. Some of them are used in different ways in everyday speech. A small framework of terms therefore makes both lessons and conversations with piano makers, tuners and musicians easier.

Keyboard denotes the totality of the keys. A single key is mechanically connected to further components and, on an acoustic instrument, triggers the production of sound. The visible key is thus only the outermost interface of a much longer sequence of movement.

Hammer, or hammer head, denotes the part that strikes the string. The hammer head is covered with felt. Its shape, mass, freedom of movement and the condition of the felt influence the response. The hammer heads are therefore particularly important for the tonal character of an instrument.

Dampers are parts that stop the vibration of the strings after a key is released. Without damping, many notes would ring on considerably longer. The work of the dampers is therefore an important element of articulation.

Soundboard is the large wooden surface that takes up the vibrational energy of the strings through the bridge and, as part of the acoustic system, passes it on to the air. Its construction and condition have a considerable influence on projection and sound.

Bridge connects the strings to the soundboard. It transmits the vibrational energy and must at the same time absorb the mechanical forces of the string tension. Bridges are therefore important both acoustically and structurally.

Cast-iron frame is the load-bearing metal component of modern acoustic pianos. It carries a large part of the string tension. The development of stable metal frames was an important precondition for the more powerful construction of the modern piano.

Scaling denotes in piano making the structural layout of the stringing across the range. It includes, among other things, string lengths, diameters, tension relationships and the positioning of the strings. Scaling influences both technical and tonal properties.

Tuning means setting the pitches. To be distinguished from it are regulation, the mechanical adjustment of the action, and voicing, the treatment of the hammer felts to influence response and tone colour. In everyday speech these three jobs are sometimes lumped together as “piano tuning”, but technically they are distinct.

Temperament denotes a system in which the pitches are distributed so that the instrument can be played in different keys. For the modern piano, equal temperament is the usual theoretical point of reference. The actual tuning of a real instrument nevertheless takes the acoustic properties of its strings into account.

Overtones are frequency components above the fundamental that contribute substantially to the tone colour. The precise distribution of these components distinguishes a piano from other instruments and also accounts for the differences between individual pianos.

Inharmonicity describes the deviation of the partials of real strings from the ideal whole-number multiples of the fundamental frequency. It is particularly significant for piano tuning and is one reason why the optimal tuning of a piano cannot simply be taken from an idealised mathematical table.

Resonance can refer to various processes in connection with the piano. Freely vibrating strings can be excited by other notes, the soundboard can radiate vibrational energy, and the room too can reinforce certain frequency ranges. The term should therefore be used with its particular context made clear.

Legato, staccato and other forms of articulation describe the shaping of transitions between notes and of note lengths. On the piano these differences arise through key movements controlled in time and dynamics and, where appropriate, through use of the pedals.

Una corda denotes on a grand the effect of the left pedal, by which the action is shifted sideways. The term literally means “one string”, but it describes the actual construction of modern grands only historically or in simplified form. Depending on the design, the hammers strike the strings in an altered position.

Sostenuto denotes a pedal function that lets particular notes already sounding continue to ring while notes struck later are damped normally. This pedal is found above all on concert grands. On many uprights, by contrast, the middle pedal has a different function.

Practice rail (moderator) denotes a device found on certain uprights that can be brought between hammers and strings and markedly softens the sound. The instrument can thereby be played more quietly. The actual construction depends on the model.

Pedalling involves far more than simply pressing the right pedal down. Timing, duration and changes of pedal are decisive. Advanced players use the pedals to shape connections of sound, resonances and musical lines deliberately.

Range denotes the span between the lowest and the highest note an instrument can play. On the modern 88-key piano this runs from A0 to C8. Historical instruments and special models can differ from this.

Register is frequently used to describe different areas of the range, for example bass, middle and treble. This division is not absolute. On the piano the tone colour changes continuously across the keyboard.

These terms show that a piano consists of several interconnected systems. Mechanics, acoustics and playing technique cannot be separated entirely from one another. A change to one part of the system can have effects on other areas. It is precisely this connection that makes piano building so demanding and at the same time explains the great expressive range of the instrument.

18Sources and further reading

• Edwin M. Good: Giraffes, Black Dragons, and Other Pianos. Stanford University Press, 2nd ed. 2001.
• Stewart Pollens: The Early Pianoforte. Cambridge University Press 1995.
• Harold A. Conklin: Design and tone in the mechanoacoustic piano. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 99/100 (1996).
• Article “Klavier” in: MGG; “Pianoforte” in: Grove Music Online.

Last updated: September 2026 · Musikpedia editorial team, Cuxhaven Music School

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